The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 3000 BC. By the 16th century, Spanish invaders began to raid the region of present-day Chile, and the territory was a colony from 1540 to 1818…

[Carlos Ortiz]

The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 3000 BC. By the 16th century, Spanish invaders began to raid the region of present-day Chile, and the territory was a colony from 1540 to 1818, when it gained independence from Spain. The country's economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then saltpeter and later copper. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. Chile was governed during most of its first 150 years of independence by different forms of restricted government, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite.
Failure to address the economic and social increases and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population, as well as indirect intervention and economic funding to the main political groups by the CIA,[1] as part of the Cold War, led to a political polarization under Socialist president Salvador Allende. This in turn resulted in the 1973 coup d'tat and the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, whose seventeen-year regime was responsible for many human rights violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms. In 1990, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy and initiate a succession of democratic governments.
About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in the fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different Amerindian societies. The current prevalent theories are that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the Clovis culture, or even trans-Pacific migration. These theories are backed by findings in the Monte Verde archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years. Specific early human settlement sites from the very early human habitation in Chile include the Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater's lava tube.[2]
Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify the indigenous people into three major cultural groups: the northern people, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by pre-Incan cultures; the Araucanian culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of Chilo, and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers).No elaborate, centralized, sedentary civilization reigned supreme.[3]
The Araucanians, a fragmented society of hunters, gatherers, and farmers, constituted the largest Native American group in Chile. Mobile people who engaged in trade and warfare with other indigenous groups lived in scattered family clusters and small villages. Although the Araucanians had no written language, they did use a common tongue. Those in what became central Chile were more settled and more likely to use irrigation. Those in the south combined slash-and-burn agriculture with hunting. Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the fiercest resistance to the attempts at seizure of their territory were the Mapuche, meaning "people of the land."[3]
Scholars speculate that the total Araucanian population may have numbered 1.5 million at most when the Spaniards arrived in the 1530s; a century of European conquest and disease reduced that number by at least half. During the conquest, the Araucanians quickly added horses and European weaponry to their arsenal of clubs and bows and arrows. They became adept at raiding Spanish settlements and, albeit in declining numbers, managed to hold off the Spaniards and their descendants until the late 19th century. The Araucanians' valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nation's first national heroes, a status that did nothing, however, to elevate the wretched living standard of their descendants.[3][7]
The Argentine portion of Patagonia includes the provinces of Neuqun, Ro Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, as well as the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego archipelago. The Argentine politico-economic Patagonic Region includes the Province of La Pampa.[10]
The Chilean part of Patagonia embraces the southern part of Valdivia, Los Lagos in Lake Llanquihue, Chilo, Puerto Montt and the Archaeological site of Monte Verde, also the fiords and islands south to the regions of Aisn and Magallanes, including the west side of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn.[7]
The first European to sight Chilean territory was Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Strait of Magellan on November 1, 1520. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to Diego de Almagro. Almagro was Francisco Pizarro's partner, and he received the Southern area (Nueva Toledo). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to be garotted following defeat by Hernando Pizarro in a Civil War.[11][12]
After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, Pedro de Valdivia, captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now Santiago de Chile, on February 12, 1541.[13]
Although Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first encomiendas. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the Mapuche people, who opposed European conquest and colonization until the 1880s; this resistance is known as the Arauco War. Valdivia died at the Battle of Tucapel, defeated by Lautaro, a young Mapuche toqui (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway.
The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the Bo-Bo River except Chilo (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Valdivia became the first governor of the Captaincy General of Chile. In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the King of Spain and his bureaucracy. Responsible to the governor, town councils known as Cabildo administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a Royal Appeals Court (Real Audiencia) from 1609 until the end of colonial rule.
Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's Bourbon dynasty and a more stable situation along the frontier.
The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by the usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the larger Spanish American independence movement, and it was far from having unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war between pro-Independence Criollos who sought political and economic independence from Spain and royalist Criollos, who supported the continued allegiance to and permanence within the Spanish Empire of the Captaincy General of Chile. The struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and Native Americans.
The beginning of the Independence movement is traditionally dated as of September 18, 1810, when a national junta was established to govern Chile in the name of the deposed king Ferdinand VII. Depending on what terms one uses to define the end, the movement extended until 1821 (when the Spanish were expelled from mainland Chile) or 1826 (when the last Spanish troops surrendered and Chilo was incorporated into the Chilean republic). The independence process is normally divided into three stages: Patria Vieja, Reconquista, and Patria Nueva.
Among those favouring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement. After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by the Battle of Rancagua on October 12. O'Higgins, Carrera and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina.
In exile in Argentina, O'Higgins joined forces with Jos de San Martn. Their combined army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12 and marking the beginning of the Patria Nueva. San Martn considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish.
Chile won its formal independence when San Martn defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the Battle of Maip on April 5, 1818. San Martn then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile's southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826. cc7c31b456

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Hip-hop celebrated its 50th year with standout projects from leaders in the genre. Drake, Travis Scott, Nicki Minaj, and Lil Uzi Vert all had No. 1 albums on the Billboard 200 this year. There were also standout projects from Doja Cat, Rod Wave (who also earned a No. 1 album), Gunna, Ice Spice, and more.
This was also one of the best years for R&B. SZA dominated the charts with SOS, which dropped in December 2022. Victoria Mont and Coco Jones also made their presence known in the R&B space as their projects also got much-deserved accolades.
Ice Spice and Sexxy Red were everywhere in 2023. Ice Spice, a Bronx native, released her debut EP Like..? in January and then followed up with a deluxe in July. Her "Princess Diana" remix with Nicki Minaj, as well as "Barbie World" with the Queens rapper along with "Deli," were just some of her best songs of the year.
She earned her first Grammy nominations this year for Best New Artist, Best Song Written For Visual Media ("Barbie World" with Nicki Minaj), Best Pop Duo/Group Performance (for her feature on Taylor Swift's "Karma"), and Best Rap Song ("Barbie World" with Nicki Minaj).
Whether you enjoy Barbie or not, you have to admit that this was one of the hottest songs of the year. Nicki Minaj and Ice Spice released the lead single to the Barbie film soundtrack in June. It samples Aqua's 1997 "Barbie Girl." The record marked the second time Nicki and Ice Spice worked together following the remix to "Princess Diana." The song debuted at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100. It became Nicki's 23rd, Ice Spice's fourth and Aqua's second top-ten hit.
While the song came out at the tail end of 2022, the song made waves the following year. "Snooze" appears on SZA's sophomore album SOS, which was released on December 9, 2022. The record is the second single off of the album. It is the only song in 2023 that has been on the Billboard Hot 100 chart every week since its inception. The song has an acoustic remix featuring Justin Bieber, who also appears in the song's official music video. "Snooze" was nominated for Best R&B Song at the 2024 Grammys.
"First Person Shooter" marks Drake and Cole's third collaboration, and they were not playing any games with this one. The record arrived on Drake's For All The Dogs, which was released on Oct. 6. The rappers previously worked together on "In The Morning" and "Jodeci Freestyle." After this release, the two dropped "Evil Ways," which appears on the deluxe For All The Dogs: Scary Hours Edition. "First Person Shooter" debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it Cole's first top charter and Drake's 13th.
"F--umean" was a fan favorite from Gunna's A Gift & A Curse. The LP was released on June 15, 2023 and is the Atlanta rapper's fourth studio album. This was his first album since his arrest on RICO charges last year, which he later pleaded guilty to, per the terms of an Alford plea deal, and was released.
Victoria Mont has been making and writing music for artists such as Ariana Grande, Travis Scott, Fifth Harmony, and more for years. However, with the release of Jaguar II and "On My Mama," the third single from the aforementioned project, she's risen into the spotlight for herself as an artist. "On My Mama" is nominated for Record of the Year and Best R&B Song at the 2024 Grammy Awards.
Tyla has captured our hearts and our ears with her breakout hit "Water." It sparked a viral social media challenge where fans would replicate her Bacardi dance moves as they pour water down their backs. The South African artist dropped the song in July. Her debut self-titled studio album is set to be released in March 2024.
"Cobra" is Megan Thee Stallion's comeback song as she took a hiatus from music during the Tory Lanez trial and conviction. On "Cobra," the rapper speaks on missing her parents, who are both deceased, the depression she's faced being in the limelight, and the alleged cheating of her ex-boyfriend Pardison Fontaine. This is also her first song as an independent artist after separating from 300 Entertainment this year.
"Paint The Town Red" is the second single from Doja's 2023 album Scarlet. Scarlet is the singer/rapper's fourth studio album. The song samples Dionne Warwick's 1964 hit "Walk On By." "Paint The Town Red" hit No. 1 during its fifth week on the Billboard Hot 100, making it Dojo's first solo No. 1 hit. It was also the first rap song to top the Hot 100 in over a year since Nicki Minaj's "Super Freaky Girl" in 2022.
Toosii's "Favorite Song" is the lead single from his second studio album Naujour. The North Carolina rapper tapped into a different sound using an R&B beat as it samples Tatiana Manaois's "You Might As Well." The rapper released two remixes with Khalid and one with Future titled "Favorite Song (Toxic Version)." He earned his first Billboard Hot 100 placement with "Favorite Song" after it debuted at No. 51 on the chart.
Chris Brown tapped into Afrobeats with his song "Sensational." The song features a guest appearance from African artists Davido and Lojay. The record is the second single from his 11th album 11:11 , which arrived in November.
Sexxy Red has had a breakout year. "SkeeYee" is the fourth single from her Hood Hottest Princess mixtape. The rapper earned the first-ever No. 1 on Billboard's inaugural TikTok Top 50 chart. It peaked at No. 62 on the chart.
Usher enlisted Summer Walker and 21 Savage for his song "Good Good." It was the first time all three artists worked together on a track."Good Good" topped Billboard's R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay chart. It was the first time the R&B legend took the crown since his 2016 "No Limit," featuring Young Thug. The song will be featured on his upcoming album Coming Home set to drop in 2024.
Latto knew she had a hit on her hands with "Put It On Da Floor." For the remix, "Put It On Da Floor Again," she brought along Cardi B. The Bronx rapper's stellar feature only added to the song's infectious tone. "Put It On Da Floor Again," debuted at No. 13 on the Billboard Hot 100. It marked Latto's second and Cardi B's 20th top-20 hit.
"Boy's a liar Pt. 2" is the lead single from PinkPantheress's debut studio album Heaven Knows. The original "Boy's a liar" was released last year and the remix was dropped with Ice Spice in February. The remix debuted at number 14 then peaked at No. 3 on Billboard's Hot 100 making it PinkPatheress's first time on the chart and Ice Spice's first top-five entry.
Metro Boomin recruited Diddy for the remix to "Creepin'" which originally had vocals from The Weeknd and 21 Savage. The song is from Metro Boomin's Heroes & Villains. The record samples Mario Winans' 2004 hit "I Don't Wanna Know" which features Enya and P. Diddy.
Beyonc's second surprise release of the year was the remix to her 2022 song "America Has A Problem" from her Grammy-winning Renaissance album. Beyonc enlisted rapper Kendrick Lamar for the verse. This marked their third time collaborating following 2016's "Freedom," and 2019's "Nile." The two performed the song for the first time during Beyonc's birthday concert during her Renaissance World Tour.
Nicki Minaj's first solo release of the year was "Red Ruby Da Sleeze" which was dropped back in March. Nicki samples Lumidee's 2003 hit "Never Leave You (Uh Oooh, Uh Oooh)" on the record. "Red Ruby Da Sleeze" appears as the 13th track on her fifth studio album Pink Friday 2.
"Bread and Butter" marked Gunna's return to music prior to pleading guilty to per the terms of an Alford plea deal and was released. He rapped about snakes in the industry and how he is still riding for Young Thug amid rumors that he ratted him out. The song is the lead single from his 2023 album A Gift & A Curse.
"Attention" is the lead single to Doja Cat's Scarlet. In the song, she raps about shaving her head and setting her own standards for beauty while simultaneously clapping back at trolls. It is nominated for Best Melodic Rap Performance and Best Rap Song at the 2024 Grammys.
Beyonc's "My House" is her latest solo single release since Renaissance last year. She previously dropped remixes to "Cuff It" and "America Has A Problem" from Renaissance this year, which were also surprise releases. "My House" is the song that is heard at the end of Renaissance: A Film by Beyonc, which was released in theaters on Dec. 1. The film debuted at No. 1 at the box office.
One of the highlights of Summer Walker's Clear 2: Soft Life is the intro track "To Summer From Cole (audio hug). In the song, Cole recites how proud he is of Summer holding her family down and being a staple voice in R&B. The record is Summer and Cole's first collaboration. Clear 2 is nominated for Best R&B Album at the 2024 Grammys, marking her first solo Grammys nomination.
Cousins Kendrick Lamar and Baby Keep are back at it again. "The Hillbillies" was a surprise release that dropped back in May. If the sound of "The Hillbillies" sounds familiar, it's because there is an interpolation of "Sticky" by Drake. This is the fifth collaboration between the duo following "Range Brothers," "Family Ties," "So What" and "Vent." "The Hillbillies" has been nominated for Best Rap Performance at the 2024 Grammys.
While Tyler, The Creator didn't give us a new album this year, he made it up to us with his deluxe. The rapper released Call Me If You Get Lost: The Estate Sale. The Estate Sale was released in March after the rapper noted that "some of those songs I really love, and knew they would never see the light of day, so I've decided to put a few of them out." "Dogtooth" was the lead single to the deluxe. The original Call Me If I Get Lost won Best Rap Album at the 2022 Grammys.
As if we couldn't love "Cuff It" more, Beyonc came through with a sexy remix. "Cuff It (Wetter Remix)" was a surprise drop by the Renaissance creator back in February. The original "Cuff It" won Best R&B Song at the 2023 Grammy Awards.
"Meltdown" arrived on Travis Scott's highly anticipated Utopia. The Houston rapper enlisted Drake for the feature and is a fan favorite from the LP. The song takes several shots aimed at people in the rapper's personal lives and previous beefs. Travis makes a reference to "Willy Wonka" subliminally coming for his ex-girlfriend Kylie Jenner's new boyfriend, Timothe Chalamet, who is the star of the film Wonka. Drake uses his verses to come at Pharrell Williams and Pusha T. "Meltdown" peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the chart on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Utopia is nominated for Best Rap Album at the 2023 Grammys.